కనికరం లేని కాసుల భాష - కె. శ్రీనివాస్

సందర్భం

కనికరం లేని కాసుల భాష
- కె. శ్రీనివాస్

.... I must be cruel, only to be kind:
Thus bad begins and worse remains behind
... (Hamlet Act3, Scene 4)

తన తండ్రిని చంపి, తన తల్లిని పెళ్లాడిన క్లాడియస్‌ను చంపుతున్నాననుకుని, హేమ్లెట్ తన ప్రియురాలి తండ్రి అయిన పోలోనియస్‌ను చంపుతాడు. పొరపాటును గుర్తిస్తాడు కానీ, దేవతలు తన చేత ఈ పనిచేయించారని, తాను తలపెట్టిన డేనిష్ రాజసభ ప్రక్షాళనలో ఈ కర్కశత్వం అనివార్యమనీ భావిస్తాడు. క్లాడియస్‌ను కూడా చంపితీరతానన్న సూచన కూడా చేస్తాడు. ఆ సందర్భంలో హేమ్లెట్ మాటలవి.

షేక్స్‌పియర్ నాటకంలోని పై రెండు పంక్తుల్లో మొదటి దాన్ని శుక్రవారం నాడు ప్రణబ్‌ముఖర్జీ ఉటంకించారు. 'దయగా ఉండడం కోసమే నిర్దయగా ఉండకతప్పడంలేదు' అన్నది ఆ పంక్తి అర్థం. దయా దాక్షిణ్యమూ లేని బడ్జెట్‌ను ప్రవేశపెడుతూ, దాన్ని సమర్థించుకోవడానికి ఆయనకు ఆ చరణం బాగా పనికివచ్చింది. దాని తరువాతే ఉన్న మరో పంక్తి గురించి ప్రణబ్ మర్చిపోయారో, మభ్యపెట్టారో తెలియదు. 'ఇప్పటికీ ఈ చెడు జరిగింది, మున్ముందు జరిగేది ఇంకా ఉంది' అన్నది రెండో చరణం అర్థం. ప్రణబ్ తప్పించుకున్నారు కానీ, ప్రతిపక్షసభ్యుల్లో షేక్స్‌పియర్‌ను చదివినవాళ్లు ఎవరయినా ఉంటే అప్పటికప్పుడే గేలిచేసి ఉండేవాళ్లు. తన బడ్జెట్ సారాంశాన్ని అసంకల్పితంగా బయటపెట్టినందుకు అభినందించి ఉండేవారు.

వీళ్లు ఆర్థికమంత్రులే కదా, హార్దిక మంత్రులు కాదు కదా, వీళ్లకు కవిత్వాలతో, కొటేషన్లతో ఏమిటి పని? హృదయం లేని అంకె లనూ గణాంకాలను పరచి, కావలసినవాళ్లకు వరాలూ, కానివాళ్లకు కష్టాలూ ప్రసాదించే బడ్జెట్ ప్రసంగాలలో ఉటంకింపులు లేకపోతే మసాలా ఉండదనుకుంటారో, మాయచేయలేమనుకుంటారో కానీ ఆర్థికమంత్రులకూ వారి ప్రసంగాలు తయారుచేసే సచివులకూ సూక్తులయితే కావాలి. నూటాయాభై జయంత్యుత్సవం జరుపుకుంటున్న టాగూర్‌ను బాధించడం కూడదనుకున్నారేమో ఆయన కవిత్వాన్ని ప్రతిసారీ అరువుతెచ్చుకునే ప్రణబ్ ముఖర్జీ ఈ సారి ఆయన్ని మినహాయించారు. బెంగాలీబాబు ఈసారి ప్రపంచీకరణ చెంది షేక్స్‌పియర్‌ను దిగుమతి చేసుకున్నారు.

చిదంబరం ఆర్థికమంత్రిగా ఉన్నన్ని రోజులూ బడ్జెట్ ప్రసంగాలలో తిరువళ్లువర్ ఉండవలసిందే. టాగూర్‌ను ఆయన కూడా ఉటంకించేవారు. ఇక దేశాన్ని ప్రస్తుత అధ్వాన్నశకంలోకి మళ్లించిన 1991 నాటి బడ్జెట్ ప్రసంగంలో మన్మోహన్‌సింగ్ ఇక్బాల్‌నూ, విక్టర్ హ్యూగోనూ కోట్ చేశారు. 'శ్రేష్ఠమైన గ్రీస్, ఫారోల ఈజిప్ట్, చక్రవర్తుల రోమ్- అన్నీ మట్టిలో కలసిపోయాయి, కానీ, మన దేశం ప్రాచీనం అచంచలం, సజీవం నిరంతరం వర్ధిల్లుతోంది' అన్న ఇక్బాల్ కవితాపాదాలను పేర్కొంటూ మన్మోహన్‌సింగ్- వేలాదిఏళ్ల చరిత్రలో వేళ్లూనిన భారతదేశం అస్తిత్వాన్ని మార్కెట్‌తో పెకిలించడం ప్రారంభించారు.

చెల్లింపుల సంక్షోభంలో పడిపోయి, ఆర్థికంగా దివాలా తీస్తున్న దేశాన్ని సేదతీర్చి పునరుజ్జీవింపచేయడానికి పరాధీనతనే మందుగా ప్రతిపాదించిన మన్మోహన్‌సింగ్- తన లక్ష్యానికి ఆమోదం కోసం ఒక బంగారు కలను ఆవిష్కరించారు. ప్రపంచంలో బలమైన ఆర్థికశక్తిగా భారత్‌ను తీర్చిదిద్దడం ఆ కల. ఒకసారి కల జన్మించిందంటే అది వాస్తవమై తీరుతుందని చెప్పడానికి ఆయన హ్యూగోను ఆసరా తెచ్చుకున్నారు. 'ఒక ఆలోచనకు కాలం కలసివచ్చిందంటే, వాస్తవంగా మారకుండా దాన్ని ప్రపంచంలో ఏ శక్తీ ఆపలేదు' అన్నది హ్యూగో మాట. ఫ్రెంచి విప్లవ స్ఫూర్తితో సాహిత్యంలో రొమాంటిసిజాన్ని, రాజకీయాల్లో రిపబ్లికనిజాన్ని అభిమానించి మూడో నెపోలియన్ చేతిలో బాధితుడైన రచయిత హ్యూగో. అతని మాటల సందర్భానికీ, మన్మోహన్ చారిత్రాత్మక బడ్జెట్ సందర్భానికీ పోలికే లేదు.

అక్రమాల ఆరోపణలపై 1958లో ఆర్థికమంత్రి టి.టి. కృష్ణమాచారి వైదొలగినప్పుడు, స్వయంగా బడ్జెట్‌ను సమర్పిస్తూ నాటి ప్రధాన మంత్రి జవహర్‌లాల్ నెహ్రూ చేసిన ప్రసంగంలోని కొన్ని వాక్యాలను ఈ సందర్భంగా గుర్తు చేసుకోవాలి. "ఈ బడ్జెట్ అనేది మన ప్రస్థానంలో ఒక చిన్న సంఘటన మాత్రమే. మనమేమి చేయాలి, ఏమి సాధించాలి అన్నది మన దృక్పథం కావాలి.

అన్నిటికి మించి, మన విజయం మన మీదనే ఆధారపడి ఉంటుంది, ఇతరుల మీద కాదు అన్నది గుర్తించాలి. మన శక్తి మీద, మన వివేకం మీద, మన ఐక్యత మీద, సహకారం మీద, ఎవరికి సేవ చేయడం మన భాగ్యమో ఆ ప్రజల స్ఫూర్తి మీద మన విజయం ఆధారపడి ఉంటుంది''. ఆర్థికరంగ వృద్ధి రేటు పెంచడం తప్ప మరో లక్ష్యం లేనట్టు, సంస్కరణలను విస్తరిస్తూ పోవడం తప్ప మరో కార్యక్రమం లేనట్టు, అసలు మనకొక సుదీర్ఘ ప్రస్థానమే లేనట్టు, ప్రజలనేవారికి ఈ ప్రక్రియలో స్థానమే లేనట్టు వ్యవహరిస్తున్న బడ్జెట్ ప్రతిపాదనలను దృష్టిలో పెట్టుకుంటే- నెహ్రూ కాలంలో మిగిలి ఉన్న ఆదర్శాలో, లక్ష్యశుద్ధో అపురూపమే అనిపిస్తాయి.

చివరకు ఇందిర కాలంలో కూడా ఇంత అన్యాయం లేదు. 1970-71 సంవత్సర బడ్జెట్‌ను ఆర్థికమంత్రిగా కూడా ఉన్న ఇందిరాగాంధీ సమర్పించారు. ఆర్థికరంగ ఎదుగుదల దేశ తక్షణ అవసరమని, అందుకోసం సర్వ శక్తులూ కూడగట్టుకోవాలని చెప్పినప్పటికీ ఇందిర ప్రసంగంలో ఈ మాటలు కూడా ఉన్నాయి. "ఆర్థిక వృద్ధి అత్యవసరమనుకుంటే, కొన్ని నిర్దిష్టరంగాలలో సామాజిక సంక్షేమచర్యలు కూడా అంతే అత్యవసరం. వనరుల సమీకరణ ఎంత అవసరమైనప్పటికీ, ఆదాయాల మధ్య, వినియోగాల మధ్య, సంపదల మధ్య సమానత్వాన్ని సాధించడం అనే లక్ష్యాలను కూడా ద్రవ్యవ్యవస్థ నెరవేర్చాలి''.

సంక్షేమం గురించి మాట్లాడక తప్పని పరిస్థితి జనాకర్షకనేతలకు ఆనాడు ఉండింది. ఆనాటి జాతీయ అధికారిక విధానాలు కూడా నేడున్నంత కర్కశంగా మొరటుగా లేవు. ప్రజలతో కఠినంగా ఉండడం ఒక ఫ్యాషన్‌గా మార్చిన సోషల్ డార్వినిజం ఆనాడింకా ప్రవేశించలేదు. మన్మోహన్‌సింగ్ కూడా 1991 నాటి ప్రసంగంలో ప్రజల విషయంలో దయగా ఉండడం గురించి ప్రస్తావించారు.

జాతి ప్రయోజనాల విషయంలో ఎంతటి కాఠిన్యాన్నైనా వహిస్తాను, ప్రజలతో వ్యవహరించేటప్పుడు మాత్రం సుతిమెత్తగానే ఉంటాను, సమానత్వాన్ని, సామాజికన్యాయాన్ని సాధించే విషయంలో వెనుకడుగు వేయను- అని ఆయన వాగ్దానం చేశారు. ఆ మాటలు ప్రత్యేకంగా చెప్పవలసి వచ్చిందంటేనే ఆయన ప్రారంభించిన మార్గంలో ఉండే సమస్యలు సూచితమవుతున్నాయి. ఆ వాగ్దానాన్ని ఆయన ఎంత వరకు నిలబెట్టుకున్నారో, ఇరవయ్యేళ్ల తరువాత ఆయన ఎక్కడున్నారో ప్రజలను ఎక్కడ ఉంచారో ప్రత్యేకంగా చెప్పుకోనక్కరలేదు.

దేశంలో ఉన్న సహజవనరులను, మానవ వనరులను దృష్టిలో పెట్టుకుని, ప్రజలందరి గౌరవప్రదమైన మనుగడకు, సామాజికంగా, ఆర్థికంగా మెరుగైన జీవనానికి అవసరమైన దీర్ఘకాలిక సమగ్ర విధానాన్ని ప్రభుత్వాలు రూపొందించి, ఆ విధానాల్లో భాగంగా తాత్కాలిక ఆర్థిక ప్రణాళికలను రచించుకోవాలి. వాటిని తరచు సమీక్షించుకుంటూ, మారుతున్న పరిస్థితులకు అనుగుణంగా సవరించుకుంటూ ముందుకు పోవాలి. ఏ రంగంలో పెట్టుబడులు ఎటువంటి ప్రత్యక్ష పరోక్ష ఫలితాలను ఇస్తాయో గమనించి, వివేకవంతమయిన ప్రయత్నాలు చేయాలి.

ఈ దేశంలో కాపాడుకోవలసిన, సంరక్షించవలసిన అతి ముఖ్యమైన వనరులు మనుషుల ప్రాణాలు, ఆరోగ్యాలేనని, పెట్టవలసిన అతి పెద్ద పెట్టుబడి విద్యా వైద్యరంగాల్లోనేనని గుర్తించడానికి నిరాకరించే ఆర్థికవేత్తలు హార్వర్డ్‌లో చదివితేనేమి, శాస్త్రాన్ని అవపోశన పడితేనేమి? ప్రజల సాముదాయిక సంపదను, పన్నుల ద్వారా వచ్చే ఆదాయాన్ని అతి కొద్దిమందికి అనుకూలంగా మళ్లించడానికి, నిరంతరంగా ఆ వర్గాలకు మేలు చేసే విధంగా విధానాలు రూపొందించడానికి ఇప్పుడు ప్రభుత్వాలు, వాటిని నడిపే రాజకీయ పక్షాలు పనిచేస్తున్నాయి.

ఆ విధానాలు మున్ముందు ప్రజలకు మేలు చేస్తాయని, అప్పటి దాకా ప్రజలు త్యాగాలు చేస్తూ పోవాలని ఆ పక్షాలూ, వాటి తరఫు మేధావులూ ఊదరగొడుతూ ఉంటారు. ప్రజల్లో కొనుగోలు శక్తిని, పరిపాలనలో పురోగతిలో భాగస్వాములు కాగలిగే శక్తిని పెంపొందించవలసిన ప్రభుత్వాలు, ఆ ఊసే ఎత్తకుండా, తాత్కాలికమైనవీ, జనాన్ని పరాధీనులను చేసేవీ అయిన సంక్షేమ పథకాలతో కాలం వెళ్లబుచ్చుతున్నాయి.

బతకగలిగిన వాడే బతుకుతాడు, లేనివాడు అణగారి నశిస్తాడు- అన్నది జీవపరిణామంలో నిజం కావచ్చును కానీ, మనుషుల విషయంలో అది అమానుషమైన సిద్ధాంతం. నశించేవారు నశించగా, కొనవూపిరులతో ఉండేవారికి నాలుగు మెతుకులు విదిలించి, దేశసంపదను కొందరికి కట్టబెట్టే వ్యవస్థలో - ఉదారవిధానాలంటే కఠినాతి కఠినమైన విధానాలే.

అందుకే, వరుసగా బడ్జెట్లు కఠినంగా ఉండడంలో ఆశ్చర్యం లేదు. సకలమూ సేవారంగంగా మారిపోయి పన్నుల వడగళ్లు కురిస్తే వింతేమీ లేదు. సబ్సిడీలు హరించుకుపోయి, కార్పొరేట్ ప్రోత్సాహకాలు కొనసాగితే ఆశ్చర్యమేమీ లేదు.

హేమ్లెట్ రెండో వాక్యాన్ని దాచిపెట్టి ఒక్క వాక్యాన్నే ఉటంకించిన ప్రణబ్, తన మనసులోని రెండు మాటలను కూడా బయటకు రాకుండా మింగేశారు. ఆ మాటలు కూడా కలుపుకుంటే ఆయన చెప్పవలసింది- "నేను కార్పొరేట్లపై దయగా ఉండడానికే ప్రజలపై నిర్దయగా ఉండకతప్పడం లేదు.''

- కె. శ్రీనివాస్

Theravada Buddhism A Chronology

edited by John T. Bullitt

© 2005–2012

This timeline chronicles some of the significant events and personalities in the evolution of Theravada Buddhism that, in one way or another, figure prominently in the readings found elsewhere on this website. This is not meant to be a comprehensive chronology.
Because the sources I used in constructing this timeline (indicated by braces {} and listed at the end of this document) often assumed different dates for the Buddha's nativity, I have occasionally had to interpolate in order to fit events (particularly the early ones) onto a reasonably consistent timeline. Nevertheless, this chronology should provide a fairly clear picture of the relative sequence of events, if not the absolute dates on which they occurred.
For a general introduction to Theravada Buddhism, please see "What is Theravada Buddhism?".

BE[1]   CE[2]

-80   -624/-560

The Bodhisatta (Sanskrit: Bodhisattva), or Buddha-to-be, is born in Lumbini (in present-day Nepal) as Siddhattha (Skt: Siddhartha) Gotama, a prince of the Sakya clan. {1,2}

-51   -595/-531

The Bodhisatta renounces the householder life (age 29).

-45   -589/-525

While meditating under the Bo tree in the forest at Gaya (now Bodhgaya, India) during the full-moon night of May, the Bodhisatta becomes the Buddha (age 36). During the full-moon night of July, the Buddha delivers his first discourse near Varanasi, introducing the world to the Four Noble Truths and commencing a 45-year career of teaching the religion he called "Dhamma-vinaya."

1   -544/-480

Parinibbana (Skt: Parinirvana; death and final release) of the Buddha, at Kusinara (now Kusinagar, India) (age 80). {1,3} During the rains retreat following the Buddha's Parinibbana, the First Council (sangayana)Vinaya Pitaka; the recitation of the Dhamma by Ven. Ananda becomes established as the Sutta Pitaka. {1,4} convenes at Rajagaha, India, during which 500 arahant bhikkhus, led by Ven. Mahakassapa, gather to recite the entire body of the Buddha's teachings. The recitation of the Vinaya by Ven. Upali becomes accepted as the

100   -444/-380

100 years after the Buddha's Parinibbana the Second Council convenes in Vesali to discuss controversial points of Vinaya. The first schism of the Sangha occurs, in which the Mahasanghika school parts ways with the traditionalist Sthaviravadins. At issue is the Mahasanghika's reluctance to accept the Suttas and the Vinaya as the final authority on the Buddha's teachings. This schism marks the first beginnings of what would later evolve into Mahayana Buddhism, which would come to dominate Buddhism in northern Asia (China, Tibet, Japan, Korea). {1}

294   -250

Third Council is convened by King Asoka at Pataliputra (India). Disputes on points of doctrine lead to further schisms, spawning the Sarvastivadin and Vibhajjavadin sects. The Abhidhamma Pitaka is recited at the Council, along with additional sections of the Khuddaka Nikaya. The modern Pali Tipitaka is now essentially complete, although some scholars have suggested that at least two parts of the extant Canon — the Parivara in the Vinaya, and the Apadana in the Sutta — may date from a later period. {1, 4}

297   -247

King Asoka sends his son, Ven. Mahinda, on a mission to bring Buddhism to Sri Lanka. King Devanampiya Tissa of Sri Lanka is converted. {5}

304   -240

Ven. Mahinda establishes the Mahavihara (Great Monastery) of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. The Vibhajjavadin community living there becomes known as the Theravadins. Mahinda compiles the first of the Tipitaka commentaries, in the Sinhala language. Mahinda's sister, Ven. Sanghamitta, arrives in Sri Lanka with a cutting from the original Bo tree, and establishes the bhikkhuni-sangha in Sri Lanka.{1, 5}

444   -100

Famine and schisms in Sri Lanka point out the need for a written record of the Tipitaka to preserve the Buddhist religion. King Vattagamani convenes a Fourth Council, in which 500 reciters and scribes from the Mahavihara write down the Pali Tipitaka for the first time, on palm leaves. {4, 5, 6}

544   1

Common Era (CE) begins; Year 1 AD.

644   100

Theravada Buddhism first appears in Burma and Central Thailand. {1}

744   200

Buddhist monastic university at Nalanda, India flourishes; remains a world center of Buddhist study for over 1,000 years. {1}

ca. 1000   5^th c.

Ven. Buddhaghosa collates the various Sinhala commentaries on the Canon — drawing primarily on the Maha Atthakatha (Great Commentary) preserved at the Mahavihara — and translates them into Pali. This makes Sinhala Buddhist scholarship available for the first time to the entire Theravadan world and marks the beginning of what will become, in the centuries to follow, a vast body of post-canonical Pali literature. Buddhaghosa also composes his encyclopedic, though controversial, meditation manual Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification). Vens. Buddhadatta and Dhammapala write additional commentaries and sub-commentaries. {7}

ca. 1100   600's

Buddhism in India begins a long, slow decline from which it would never fully recover. {1}

ca. 1100? 1400?   6^th c.? 9^th c.?

Dhammapala composes commentaries on parts of the Canon missed by Buddhaghosa (such as the Udana, Itivuttaka, Theragatha, and Therigatha), along with extensive sub-commentaries on Buddhaghosa's work. {7}

1594   1050

The bhikkhu and bhikkhuni communities at Anuradhapura die out following invasions from South India.{1, 5}

1614   1070

Bhikkhus from Pagan arrive in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka to reinstate the obliterated Theravada ordination line on the island. {5}

1697   1153

Buddhist Council (the 5^th by Sri Lankan reckoning; the 7^th by Thai reckoning) in Sri Lanka. {12}

1708   1164

Polonnaruwa destroyed by foreign invasion. With the guidance of two monks from a forest branch of the Mahavihara sect — Vens. Mahakassapa and Sariputta — King Parakramabahu reunites all bhikkhus in Sri Lanka into the Mahavihara sect. {1, 8}

1780   1236

Bhikkhus from Kañcipuram, India arrive in Sri Lanka to revive the Theravada ordination line. {1}

1823   1279

Last inscriptional evidence of a Theravada Bhikkhuni nunnery (in Burma). {8}

1831   1287

Pagan looted by Mongol invaders; its decline begins. {1}

ca. 1900   13^th c.

A forest-based Sri Lankan ordination line arrives in Burma and Thailand. Theravada spreads to Laos. Thai Theravada monasteries first appear in Cambodia shortly before the Thais win their independence from the Khmers. {1}

ca. 2000   1400's

Another forest lineage is imported from Sri Lanka to Ayudhaya, the Thai capital. A new ordination line is also imported into Burma. {1}

2297   1753

King Kirti Sri Rajasinha obtains bhikkhus from the Thai court to reinstate the bhikkhu ordination line, which had died out in Sri Lanka. This is the origin of the Siyam Nikaya. {8}

2312   1768

Burmese destroy Ayudhaya (Thai capital).

2321   1777

King Rama I, founder of the current dynasty in Thailand, obtains copies of the Tipitaka from Sri Lanka and sponsors a Council to standardize the Thai version of the Tipitaka, copies of which are then donated to temples throughout the country. {1}

2347   1803

Sri Lankans ordained in the Burmese city of Amarapura found the Amarapura Nikaya in Sri Lanka to supplement the Siyam Nikaya, which admitted only brahmans from the Up Country highlands around Kandy. {9}

2372   1828

Thailand's Prince Mongkut (later King Rama IV) founds the Dhammayut movement, which would later become the Dhammayut Sect. {1}

ca. 2400   1800's

Sri Lankan Sangha deteriorates under pressure from two centuries of European colonial rule (Portuguese, Dutch, British). {5}

2406   1862

Forest monks headed by Ven. Paññananda go to Burma for reordination, returning to Sri Lanka the following year to found the Ramañña Nikaya. {9} First translation of the Dhammapada into a Western language (German). {2}

2412   1868

Buddhist Council (the 5^th by Burmese reckoning) is held at Mandalay, Burma; Pali Canon is inscribed on 729 marble slabs. {2}

2417   1873

Ven. Mohottivatte Gunananda defeats Christian missionaries in a public debate, sparking a nationwide revival of Sri Lankan pride in its Buddhist traditions. {8}

2423   1879

Sir Edwin Arnold publishes his epic poem Light of Asia, which becomes a best-seller in England and the USA, stimulating popular Western interest in Buddhism.

2424   1880

Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, founders of the Theosophical Society, arrive in Sri Lanka from the USA, embrace Buddhism, and begin a campaign to restore Buddhism on the island by encouraging the establishment of Buddhist schools. {1}

2425   1881

Pali Text Society is founded in England by T.W. Rhys Davids; most of the Tipitaka is published in roman script and, over the next 100 years, in English translation.

2435   1891

Maha Bodhi Society founded in India by the Sri Lankan lay follower Anagarika Dharmapala, in an effort to reintroduce Buddhism to India. {1}

2443   1899

First Western Theravada monk (Gordon Douglas) ordains, in Burma. {2}

ca. 2444   ca. 1900

Ven. Ajaan Mun and Ven. Ajaan Sao revive the forest meditation tradition in Thailand. {1}

2445   1902

King Rama V of Thailand institutes a Sangha Act that formally marks the beginnings of the Mahanikaya and Dhammayut sects. Sangha government, which up to that time had been in the hands of a lay official appointed by the king, is handed over to the bhikkhus themselves.

2493   1949

Mahasi Sayadaw becomes head teacher at a government-sponsored meditation center in Rangoon, Burma. {10}

2498   1954

Burmese government sponsors a Buddhist Council (the 6^th by Burmese and Sri Lankan reckoning) in Rangoon.

2500   1956

Buddha Jayanti Year, commemorating 2,500 years of Buddhism.

2502   1958

Ven. Nyanaponika Thera establishes the Buddhist Publication Society in Sri Lanka to publish English-language books on Theravada Buddhism. Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement is founded in Sri Lanka to bring Buddhist ideals to bear in solving pressing social problems. Two Germans ordain at the Royal Thai Embassy in London, becoming the first to take full Theravada ordination in the West. {1, 2}

ca. 2504   1960's [3]

Washington (D.C.) Buddhist Vihara founded — first Theravada monastic community in the USA. {11; and Bhavana Society Brochure}

ca. 2514   1970's

Refugees from war in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos settle in USA and Europe, establishing many tight-knit Buddhist communities in the West. Ven. Taungpulu Sayadaw and Dr. Rina Sircar, from Burma, establish the Taungpulu Kaba-Aye Monastery in Northern California, USA. Ven. Ajaan Chah establishes Wat Pah Nanachat, a forest monastery in Thailand for training Western monks. Insight Meditation Society, a lay meditation center, is founded in Massachusetts, USA. Ven. Ajaan Chah travels to England to establish a small community of monks at the Hamsptead Vihara, which later moves to Sussex, England, to become Wat Pah Cittaviveka (Chithurst Forest Monastery).

ca. 2524   1980's

Lay meditation centers grow in popularity in USA and Europe. First Theravada forest monastery in the USA (Bhavana Society) is established in West Virginia. Amaravati Buddhist MonasteryVen. Ajaan Chah). established in England by Ven. Ajaan Sumedho (student of

ca. 2534   1990's

Continued western expansion of the Theravada Sangha: monasteries from the Thai forest traditions established in California, USA (Metta Forest Monastery, founded by Ven. Ajaan Suwat; Abhayagiri Monastery, founded by Ven. Ajaans Amaro and Pasanno). Buddhism meets cyberspace: online Buddhist information networks emerge; several editions of the Pali Tipitaka become available online.

Notes

1.

BE = Buddhist Era. Year 1 of the Buddhist Era calendar is the year of the Buddha's Parinibbana (death and final release), which occurred in the Buddha's eightieth year (480 BCE according to the "historical" timeline; 544 BCE by tradition).
The actual date of the Buddha's birth is unknown. According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha's birth took place in 624 BCE, although some recent estimates place the Buddha's birth much later — perhaps as late as 448 BCE {1}. 560 BCE is one commonly accepted date for the Buddha's birth, and the "historical" date for that event that I adopt here.
Events in the timeline prior to -250 CE are shown with two CE dates: the date based on the "traditional" nativity of 624 BCE, followed by the date based on the "historical" date of 560 BCE. After -250 CE the "historical" date is dropped, since these dates are more appropriate only in discussions of earlier events.
To calculate the CE date corresponding to an event in the Buddhist traditional calendar, subtract 544 years from the BE date. The BE dates of well-documented historical events (particularly those in the twentieth century) may be off by one year, since the CE and BE calendars start their years on different months (January and May, respectively).

2.

CE = Common Era. Year 1 of the Common Era corresponds with the year 1 AD (Anno Domini) in the Christian calendar. -1 CE (or 1 BCE — "Before the Common Era") corresponds with the year 1 BC ("Before Christ"). By convention there is no year zero; the day after 31 December 1 BCE is 1 January 1 CE.

3.

Events of the last few decades are still too recent to claim any historical significance.

Sources

{1}

The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction (fourth edition) by R.H. Robinson & W.L. Johnson (Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1996)

{2}

The Buddha's Way by H. Saddhatissa (London: Allen & Unwin, 1971)

{3}

Pali Literature and Language by Wilhelm Geiger (New Delhi: Oriental Books, 1978)

{4}

Beginnings: the Pali Suttas by Samanera Bodhesako (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1984)

{5}

Buddhism in Sri Lanka by H.R. Perera (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1966)

{6}

The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga) (Introduction) by Ven. Bhikkhu Ñanamoli (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1975)

{7}

Indian Buddhism (second edition) by A.K. Warder (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980)

{8}

Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo by Richard Gombrich (London and New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1988)

{9}

The Forest Monks of Sri Lanka: An Anthropological and Historical Study by Michael Carrithers (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983)

{10}

The Progress of Insight by Mahasi Sayadaw (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1994)

{11}

World Buddhist Directory by The Buddhist Information Centre (Colombo, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Information Centre, 1984)

{12}

Buddhism in Thailand: Its Past and Its Present by Karuna Kusalasaya (Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, 2005), note 3.

Theravada Buddhism

The following contains excerpts from the bestselling book The Complete Book of Buddha's Lists -- Explained by David N. Snyder, Ph.D. with a Foreword by the Venerable Madewela Punnaji. The hard copy print books sold out in June of 2009 and then went online as a PDF download completely for free, no shipping and printing costs for Vipassana Foundation or purchasers as it can be read online as a free e-book.  Go to this link for more information and to see the complete book online as a PDF download:

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Theravada (Pāli: थेरवाद theravāda (cf Sanskrit: स्थविरवाद sthaviravāda); literally, "the Teaching of the Elders", or "the Ancient Teaching") is the oldest surviving Buddhist school. It is relatively conservative, and generally closest to early Buddhism, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Thailand). It is also practised by minorities in parts of southwest China (by the Shan and Tai ethnic groups), Vietnam (by the Khmer Krom), Bangladesh (by the ethnic groups of Baruas, Chakma, and Magh), Malaysia, Philippines and Indonesia, whilst recently gaining popularity in Singapore and Australia. Today Theravada Buddhists number about 200 million worldwide, and in recent decades Theravada has begun to take root in the West and in the Buddhist revival in India. 

History

The Theravāda school is ultimately derived from the Vibhajjavada (or 'doctrine of analysis') grouping which was a continuation of the older Sthavira (or 'teaching of the Elders') group at the time of the Third Buddhist Council around 250 BCE, during the reign of Emperor Asoka in India. Vibhajjavadins saw themselves as the continuation of orthodox Sthaviras and after the Third Council continued to refer to their school as the Sthaviras/Theras ('The Elders'), their doctrines were probably similar to the older Sthaviras but were not completely identical. After the Third Council geographical distance led to the Vibhajjavādins gradually evolving into four groups: the Mahīśāsaka, Kāśyapīya, Dharmaguptaka and the Tāmraparnīya. The Theravada is descended from the Tāmraparnīya, which means 'the Sri Lankan lineage'. Some sources claim that only the Theravada actually evolved directly from the Vibhajjavādins.

Main Doctrines

The main doctrines of Theravada are from the teachings found in the Pali Canon of early Buddhism. These include the Four Noble Truths, The Noble Eightfold Middle Path, and the Hindrances to Enlightenment. There is little to no use of worship in Theravada and emphasis is on mental development through meditation.

Levels of Attainment

A Buddha is someone who is fully enlightened. A person who is fully enlightened, but not the Buddha of our time, is called an Arahant in Pali. Such a person has eradicated all ten hindrances to enlightenment:

1. The belief in a permanent personality, ego
2. Doubt, extreme skepticism
3. Attachment to rites, rituals, and ceremonies
4. Attachment to sense desires
5. Ill-will, anger
6. Craving for existence in the Form world (heavenly realms)
7. Craving for existence in the Formless world (heavenly realms)
8. Conceit
9. Restlessness
10. Ignorance

An anagami (non-returner) has completely eradicated the first five hindrances and never returns to earth or any other world system (planet, solar system). Such a person is re-born to a heavenly realm and attains enlightenment from there.
A sakadagami (once returner) has eradicated the first three hindrances and greatly weakened the fourth and fifth; attachment to sense desires and ill-will. Such a person will be re-born to either the human or heavenly realm and will attain enlightenment there.
A sottapanna (stream entrant) has eradicated the first three hindrances and will be re-born no more than seven more times and re-birth will either be as a human or a deva in a heavenly realm.

Different forms Theravada takes

Theravada Buddhism has taken four distinctive forms in the West and around the world, in modern times:
A. The Secular Buddhist Society Model. This is concerned with the intense study of the Dhamma in its original formulation as given in the Pali Canon, the development of norms of living in substantial conformity of the requirements of the Dhamma, and the encouragement of the observance of the Dhamma generally.
B. The Original London Vihara Model. This model encompasses the objectives of the secular societies, but places greater emphasis on the necessity to accommodate ordained monks to expound the Dhamma. In its interpretation of the Canon it tends to place greater emphasis on Buddhaghosa's exegesis whereas the secular societies tend to go the original Canon itself.
C. The Lankarama Model. This is the ethnic Buddhist Model par excellence. Its main objective appears to be to cater to the spiritual needs of expatriate groups using the particular national models of Buddhism as practiced in their home countries without any consideration of its relevance to the universality of the Buddha's teaching or the external conditions in the host country.
D. The Meditation Centre Model. Here the Buddhist Institution is transformed into a centre for "meditation" under the guidance of a self-proclaimed "teacher". The meditation practiced is a simplified form of the first foundation of satipatthana ignoring all the preconditions which the Buddha was careful to lay down for the correct practice of this technique of mindfulness.
Dr. Gunasekara argues that models A and B are appropriate modes in following the teachings of Buddha whereas models C and D are departures from the teachings.
Variations A and sometimes B and D tends to be a Modern Theravada which focuses on the Pali Canon and acknowledges that some of the suttas are not meant to be taken too literally. Variation B and sometimes C are a Classical Theravada which tends to use the literal word of the writings in the Pali Canon and the Commentaries.

©2008 David N. Snyder, Ph.D.

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historical buddhist sites

• Bodh Gaya (Bihar)
Before his death, the Buddha enjoined his followers to make pilgrimages to four sites [ SEE LINK ]: Lumbini, where he was born; Uruvela (modern Bodh Gaya), the site of his enlightenment; Sarnath, the place of his first sermon; and Kushinara, where he died. Each of these sites may be visited today, and Bodh Gaya remains the most sacred of the four.

After the decline of Indian Buddhism in the 12th century, most Buddhist sites were destroyed or fell into disrepair. In 1891 the Sri Lankan Anagarika Dharmapala founded the Mahabodhi Society, which set out to reclaim Bodh Gaya for Buddhism; this was achieved in 1949. Bodh Gaya today is a busy centre of pilgrimage with monasteries and meditation centres run by Tibetan, Burmese, Thai and Vietnamese communities. Visitors will see a remote descendant of the bodhi tree, the magnificent but greatly restored 7th-century Mahabodhi temple, the Buddha's stone seat (vajra-asana) and a museum of Buddhist and Hindu materials.

• Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh)
The Deer Park at Sarnath just north of Varanasi was the site of the Buddha's first discourse and today contains some of the most impressive Buddhist monuments in India. The beautiful park is dominated by the 5th-century Dhamekh stupa: one of two stupas marking the spot where the Buddha is said to have first taught the Dharma. The remains of smaller stupas, shrines, five monasteries and the lower half of an inscribed Ashokan column are among other monuments to have been excavated since the 19th century.

Sarnath's archeological museum contains the Ashokan column's famous lion capital (emblem of the modern Indian state) and many other important works in stone, including a sublime figure of the teaching Buddha from the Gupta period (5th century). Like Bodh Gaya, Sarnath has a thriving international Buddhist community.

• Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)
Perhaps the finest and most complete Buddhist monument in India is Sanchi's great stupa with its four magnificent free standing gates (toranas). The vast brick stupa itself dates from around the 3rd century BC, but its carved gates and railings were probably executed two centuries later during the Satavahana dynasty. Sanchi was excavated in the early 19th century, and the restoration of the site by British and French archeologists was initiated in 1912.

Visitors today, like traditional Buddhist worshippers, can circumambulate the stupa in a clockwise direction and contemplate the teeming sculptural forms that fill the gate posts and their lofty architraves. Jataka narratives, hieratic elephants and royal lions, Hindu-Buddhist deities and exquisite female nature spirits crowd every part of the four toranas. The small archeological museum houses excavated sculptures; other important Sanchi pieces are in museums in Delhi, London and Los Angeles.

• Ajanta (Maharashtra)
The wild, crescent-shaped ravine pierced with more than twenty Buddhist cave temples makes this one of India's most spectacular sites. Many genres of early medieval sacred art, from elaborately carved monastic halls, to sculptures and wall paintings, are represented here, and prominent among Ajanta's glories are murals painted in glowing reds, blues and greens. Unique to Indian Buddhist tradition, the paintings, in high Gupta style, furnish a vision of Mahayana generosity: a mingling of human, divine and natural forms in a suspension of warm and life-enhancing interplay.

Most sublime in grace, compassion and serenity is the incomparable figure of Padmapani, the lotus carrying aspect of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara (cave 1). Scenes from Jataka narratives adorn the walls of several other monasteries in the complex.

• Kapilavastu and Lumbini
Siddhartha Gautama, the future Buddha, was born at Lumbini near the Shakyan capital of Kapilavastu in the southern region of Nepal known as the terai. The 5th-century Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien described Kapilavastu as a "great scene of empty desolation", populated by a few monks, a score or two of families and dangerous animals such as lions and white elephants. Fa-hsien none the less visited well-known sites, including the Shakyan palace, the place where the child bodhisattva's identifying marks were discovered, and, east of the city, the garden of Lumbini where the future Buddha's mother bathed and gave birth. Mounds, stupas and other ruins testified to previous Buddhist institutional prosperity. Buddhist tradition tells that the emperor Ashoka visited Nepal in the 3rd century BC and erected a stupa and an inscribed column at Lumbini. Recent excavations have uncovered evidence of stupas, monastic dwellings and the well-preserved structure of the bathing-pool. The Ashokan column -rediscovered in 1896 but snapped in half by a lightning bolt - may also be seen at Lumbini. Theravada and Tibetan monasteries have been built in the past two decades near Lumbini, re-establishing the site as an important, although geographically remote, devotional centre.

• Svayambhunath and Bodhnath (Kathmandu)
To commemorate his missionary visit, the emperor Ashoka is said to have built innumerable stupas in Nepal. Two surviving examples, much restored, may derive from the Ashokan period. These are the remarkable Svayambhunath and Bodhnath stupas in Kathmandu. Both stupas share unique Nepalese architectural features. Surmounting the conventional dome is a "steeple" raised on thirteen diminishing tiers to symbolize the thirteen Buddhist heavens. Yet more striking is the design of the square base (harmika) from which the tiers rise. The harmika is gilded, and a face gazes with immense eyes of inlaid metal and ivory from each side. One explanation for this unique Nepalese iconography is that the eyes suggest a solar cult expressed on some Hindu temples by "sun-faces". A second idea is that the temple represents the "Primal man" (mahapurusha) of early Hinduism. Buddhist theory would suggest that the eyes are a sign of the "all-seeing" Buddha. Visitors are certainly struck by the way in which the eyes follow them as they move round the stupa precincts.

• Anuradhapura (north-central Sri Lanka)
Today's Anuradhapura is a huge park containing the ruins of the Great Monastery (Mahavihara) established 250 B.C.E. on the outskirts of the ancient Singhalese capital. Anuradhapura is connected by an eight-mile (1 3km) pilgrim's path to Mihintale where the missionary Mahinda first preached and where an excavated stupa can be visited. Disinterred earlier this century from the jungle growth of more than a millennium, Anuradhapura's stupas, monastic ruins, sculptures, reservoirs, and a descendant of the original bodhi tree, provide an intense experience of ancient Buddhism. Dominating the site are two vast stupas with characteristic Singhalese "bubble domes". The Thuparama, although much restored, is probably the oldest monument in either India or Sri Lanka. The Ruwanweli Dagoba, is also heavily restored, and is clad in the undecorated white plaster which differentiates Singhalese stupa architecture from the more ornate Indian style.

At Anuradhapura a wonderful convergence of the modern and the archaic may be experienced. On May and June full moon days, the festivals of Wesak and Poson celebrate, respectively, the Buddha's birth, enlightenment and parinirvana, and the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka. At such festivals, Anuradhapura is enlivened by hundreds of thousands of devotees. For the modern day visitor, one of the great pleasures is touring Anuradhapura on a rented bicycle.

• Polonnaruwa (northeastern Sri Lanka)
While Anuradhapura evokes the austerity of early Singhalese Buddhism, the later site of Polonnaruwa, wonderfully situated on Lake Topawewa, offers an unparalleled view of medieval Buddhist sculpture and architecture. There the visitor may see the immense recumbent parinirvana Buddha and the 25-foot (7.5m) rock-cut figure of Ananda standing by the head of the Master. There too is the colossal meditating Buddha, and the famous sculptured portrait of the sage-king Parakramabahu overlooking the lake and in contemplation of a manuscript.

Equally dazzling are the early 13th-century monuments situated on the "Great Quadrangle". These include the classically proportioned pyramidal brick stupa (Sat Mahal Pasada), the carved stonework of the "temple of the tooth relic" (not to be confused with the Temple of the Tooth in Kandy) and the waving lotus-stem-shaped columns of the Nissanka Lata Mandapaya.

Just as Anuradhapura was abandoned by the 8th century, Polonnaruwa was finally conquered by the Tamils in the 15th century. The art of Polonnaruwa represents the final flowering of Singhalese Buddhist art, still matchlessly preserved in land-locked jungle.

• Bangkok and Ayutthaya
Much important early and medieval Thai architecture was ruined in southeast Asian wars, but impressive 19th and 20th century Buddhist temples abound in Thailand, and in many parts of the country there are lovely archeological sites. In Bangkok, the Wat Phra Kaeo temple, built by King Rama 1 (1782-1809) in the precincts of his Grand Palace, is a spectacular monument to the Theravada Buddhist revival initiated in the 19th century. This temple is a centre of Thailand's religious life, symbolizing the close bond between the sangha (religious community) and state, and houses the "Emerald Buddha", a figurine of national importance to modern Thai people.

The southern Thai Ayutthaya period of the 14th to 18th centuries brought an influx of new architectural ideas from Sri Lanka. Perhaps the most beautifully preserved of Thailand's medieval monuments are at the Ayutthaya historical park, north of Bangkok. Of special interest are stupas with characteristic Thai "lotus bud" domes, and temple towers showing the influence both of medieval Khmer design and of "honeycombed" south Indian shikhara towers.

• Angkor Wat
After a horrifying period of war, the Hindu temple complex of Angkor Wat and the Buddhist Angkor Thom are again accessible. Angkor Thom was the creation of the Khmer "god-king" Jayavarman VII (1181-1219), who converted to Mahayana following the destruction of Angkor by the Cham (Vietnamese) during his father's reign. Jayavarman's Buddhism seems to have been a revised version of the Brahmanical religion which previous Khmer kings had exploited to deify their own persons. The central deity in Jayavarman's religion was Lokeshvara, "Lord of the Worlds", and rebuilding Angkor Thom on a stupendously grand scale, the king created a "Buddhist" city as a monument to Lokeshvara, who was an aspect of Jayavarman's divine self. This convergence of king and deity is still visible in the portrait masks of Jayavarman carved on the four faces of the Bayon temple towers of Angkor Thorn.

Like Borobudur and many other southeast Asian temples, Angkor Thom was conceived as a model of the Buddhist universe. At the centre of an immense complex of shrines is the great Bayon temple with its cluster of five towers, the tallest of which represents Mount Meru, the cosmic axis. The whole of Angkor was moated with 100 yards (90m) of water and criss-crossed by a brilliantly engineered system of canals: the water motif symbolizing the cosmic ocean and the world's four sacred rivers and - not least - acting as an irrigation system. Much of the power of Angkor Thom emanates from a profusion of hybridized
Hindu-Buddhist iconography, carved in a wild, sweet style on the gates and terraces of Jayavarman's temple-mountain. The god-king's portrait gazing across his shattered domain adds sinister pathos.

• Borobudur
The Borobudur Temple complex is one of the greatest monuments in the world. It is of uncertain age, but thought to have been built between the end of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century A.D. For about a century and a half it was the spiritual centre of Buddhism in Java, then it was lost until its rediscovery in the eighteenth century. The structure, composed of 55,000 square metres of lava-rock is erected on a hill in the form of a stepped-pyramid of six rectangular storeys, three circular terraces and a central stupa forming the summit. The whole structure is in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha.

Besides being the highest symbol of Buddhism, the Borobudur stupa is also a replica of the universe. It symbolises the micro-cosmos, which is divided into three levels, in which man's world of desire is influenced by negative impulses; the middle level, the world in which man has control of his negative impulses and uses his positive impulses; the highest level, in which the world of man is no longer bounded by physical and worldly desire. It is ancient devotional practice to circumambulate around the galleries and terraces always turning to the left and keeping the edifice to the right while either chanting or meditating. In total, Borobudur represents the ten levels of a Bodhisattva's life which a person must develop to become a Buddha or an awakened one.

• Lhasa
Visitors may currently enter Tibet from mainland China, Hong Kong or Nepal, if they have a visa for China; the Chinese authorities maintain "closed" areas, but most of the country is accessible. In the holy city of Lhasa, the Dalai Lama's Potala Palace, like many Tibetan monasteries, is now a state museum. Unlike countless shrines and monasteries destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, both the structure and contents of the Potala are preserved. Symbol of the protection of Avalokiteshvara and of the greater Tibetan Buddhist community, the Potala still towers imposingly over Lhasa, and contains countless treasures from the 17th century, including murals, thankas, mandalas, altars, and the famous statue in sandalwood of Padmapani.

The Jokhang monastery, southeast of the Potala, is the most sacred of all Tibetan pilgrimage sites. Somehow surviving the barbarities of the Cultural Revolution, the Jokhang retains its famous gilded roof, and the "Four Deities Radiating Light" may still be seen in their shrine. The Jokhang remains a living monastery; but it may also be visited, like other sacred sites, as a "museum".

• Yung-kang (Shansi) and Lung-men (Honan) caves
Yung-kang is one of the most remarkable Buddhist sites for the massive simplicity of its immense rock-carved Buddhas and the delicate ornamentation of its narrative reliefs. Work on the cave shrines was started by the emperor of the first Wei dynasty in AD 460, in response to persecution of Buddhists over the previous twenty years. In the next decades, in the limestone river cliffs at Lung-men (5th-6th centuries), Wei dynasty monumental carving achieved a spiritual and aesthetic perfection never repeated. The giant Buddhas at Yung-kang recall Indian prototypes; at Lung-men early Buddhist and Mahayana motifs converge in a graceful, serene and authentically Chinese idiom.

• Nara and Kyoto
Nara, the Japanese imperial capital in the 8th century, remains one of the great centres of East Asian Buddhist history. In and around Nara's historic park are pagodas, early Buddhist and Shinto shrines, formal gardens, the important Nara National Museum, and not least the Todai-ji temple with its immense bronze Buddha statue.

The beauty of old Kyoto lies in its numerous Zen temples dating from the Hieian period, and the famous gardens - "hill gardens" featuring water, and dry gardens featuring rock and sand - of temples such as Tenryuji and Ryoan-ji. Zen is a living tradition and Western students are accepted at some temples in Kyoto as well as in many of the more remote monasteries in the north of the island.

Profiles of Zen / Chan Buddhists

Aitken Roshi, Robert
Hawaii-based Zen teacher of the Sanbo Kyodan lineage and writer. Captured on Guam by Japanese and interned as enemy alien for duration of World War II. Preceding interest in Japanese literature, especially haiku poetry, given new impetus by encounter with R.H. Blyth in Prisoner of War camp (1944); also became interested in zazen, though unable to practise. After War, began Zen practice with Nyogen Senzaki in California. 1950: returned to Japan to continue haiku studies; also began practice as a lay student at Ryutakuji under Yamamoto Gempo Roshi and Nakagawa Soen Roshi. Later also studied with Yasutani Hakuun Roshi and Yamada Koun Roshi. 1974: received title roshi from Yamada Koun Roshi. Currently closely associated with the Diamond Sangha, which has zendos on various of the Hawaiian islands as well as in elsewhere in USA and Australia. Wife, Anne Aitken, has been partner in all Zen work. Books including A Zen Wave; Basho's Haiku & Zen (A study of Basho's Haiku), Taking the Path of Zen and The Mind of Clover; Essays in Zen Buddhist Ethics. Writes regularly in the journal Blind Donkey.

Bodhidharma (Tamo, Ch.) (Daruma, Jap.)
Deeply learned South Indian Buddhist monk who arrived at the Chinese Court in 520 C.E. Known in China as Tamo, and in Japan as Daruma. After his famous interview with Emperor Wu, he meditated for nine years in silence and departed. Bodhidharma was the first Chinese Ch'an (Zen) Patriarch. The father of Zen Buddhism, although it was left to Masters of the eighth century, to consolidate his teaching and technique into a school of Buddhism.

Deshimaru, Roshi, Taisen (1914-82):
Japanese Soto Zen teacher active in Europe. Lived layman's life for many years; later trained with Kodo Sawaki; received Dharma transmission. 1967: settled in France; became based in Paris. 1970: founded L'Association Zen d' Europe; dojos and zazen centres established in France, Belgium, West Germany. North America, North Africa and South America. Died Tokyo; cremated Soji-ji temple, Yokohama. Books include, Vrai Zen, Zazen, La Pratique du Zen, Zen-Geist, Zen-Bdsmus und Christentum, Zen im den Kampfkunsten Japans, Zen et Arts Martiaux, La Pratique de la Concentration, Questions a un Maitre Zen, and Le Bol et le Baton. Autobiography: Autobiographic d'un Moine Zen.

Dogen (1200-1253)
The Japanese Founder of Soto Zen, the largest Zen school of Buddhism in Japan. Dogen studied the teachings of the Ts'ao Tung (Ch'an) school for four years before bringing it in 1227 to Japan. He stands alone as the Founder of the Japanese school, and is by far its greatest name. He would have no dealings with the Court, but retired to the mountains where he founded Eiheiji temple, near Fukui. There he taught that moral training (precepts), meditation and wisdom are three facets of the one process. All is Buddha, and we have but to realize what we are.

Glassman Sensei Bernard Tetsugen
Dharma heir of Maezumi Roshi (ZCLA). Born 1939, Brooklyn, New York. Educated Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn and University of California; PhD in applied maths 1970. Worked as administrator and engineer in US space program for 15 years. 1958: began studying Zen. 1963: began zazen practice at Zenshu-ji (Soto) Zen Mission, Los Angeles, guided by Sumi Roshi. 1968: began practising with Maezumi Roshi. 1970: ordained Zen Buddhist monk at ZCLA. Undertook and completed koan study with Maezumi. 1977: received Shisho or Dharma transmission from Maezumi Roshi. At present is Abbot of Zen Community of New York (ZCNY), Zenshin-ji, a Soto Zen temple and training centre in Riverdale, New York. Early 1980s: started Greyston Bakery as 'livelihood practice' of ZCNY.

Hakuin (1686-1769)
Hakuin joined the Rinzai Zen sect about 1700. He subsequently became an itinerant monk, during which time he first experienced enlightenment, and returned in 1716 to the Shoin Temple in his native Hara, which remained his base until his death. Hakuin taught that direct knowledge of the truth is available to all, even the lowliest, and that a moral life must accompany religious practice. He utilized koans (unsolvable riddles) to aid meditation and invented the well-known paradox of contemplating the sound of one hand clapping. Hakuin also is known as an artist and calligrapher. Typically using bold brushstrokes and dark ink colours, he sought to evoke in the viewer's mind his feelings on Zen practice and on the attainment of enlightenment.

Harada Roshi, Sogaku (1870-1961):
Japanese Zen Master. Trained in both Rinzai and Soto traditions, entered Soto temple as novice at age 7. Continued training in Soto temples during primary and high school years. At 20 became monk at Shogen-ji, a Rinzai monastery; after 2½ years of strenuous training, attained kensho. At age 27 enrolled at Soto-sponsored Komazawa University. Continued to do research under well-known scholars for 6 years after graduation. Then trained with Dokutan Roshi of Nanzen-ji, Kyoto for 2 years; later moved into Nanzen-ji as Dokutan's assistant and applied himself wholeheartedly to zazen and koans; completed all koans and received inka from Dokutan Roshi. At this time, recalled to Komazawa University; spent 12 years teaching there, part of the time as full professor; combined Zen training with academic work. Afterwards became Abbot of Hosshin-ji, a post he retained for 40 years. Until almost age 90, conducted week-long sesshin at Hosshin-ji 6 times a year; also held sesshin elsewhere.' Nominally of the Soto sect, he welded together the best of Soto and Rinzai and the amalgam was a vibrant Buddhism, which has become one of the great teaching lines in Japan today'; His commentary on Shushogi, a codification of Dogen's Shobogenzo, is recognized as one of the most penetrating of its kind' (Philip Kapleau)

Hui-Neng (638-713)
The Sixth Patriarch of Ch'an/Zen Buddhism in China. His words are preserved in a work called the Platform Sutra. Known in Japan as Eno and in Vietnam as Huê-Nãng, he was the sixth and last patriarch of Ch'an Buddhist in China. As leader of the Southern branch of the Ch'an school, he taught the doctrine of Spontaneous Enlightenment, through meditation in which thought, objectivity and all attachment are eliminated.

Hsu Yun, Ch'an Master (1840-1959)
'Universally regarded as the most outstanding Buddhist of the Chinese Sangha in the modern era' (Richard Hunn). Dharma successor of all five Ch'an schools; main reformer in Chinese Buddhism revival (1900-50). Born in Chuan Chou, Fukein province. Left home at 19 took Refuge at Yung Chuan Ssu on Mt Ku with Master Chang Kai. In 56 year achieved final awakening at Kao Min Ssu in Yang Chou. Thereafter began revival and teaching work. Founded many schools and hospitals, and died in 120th year.

Kapleau Roshi, Philip
American Zen teacher, born 1912, New Haven, Connecticut. 1946: Chief Court reporter, International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg. 1947: court reporter, International Military Tribunal, Tokyo. 1953-66: trained in various Rinzai and Soto Zen monasteries and temples in Japan, Teachers - Harada Roshi, Yasutani Roshi and Nakagawa Soen Roshi (all qoud vide (see reference elsewhere)). Also spent 1 year in South East Asia living at ashrams in India, Burma and Sri Lanka. Centres established: Rochester, New York (1966 - headquarters); Toronto and Montreal, Canada; Evanston, Illinois, Denver, Colorado; Santa Fe, New Mexico; Madison, Wisconsin, Mexico City; San Jose, Costa Rica, Poland (3 centres); Stockholm, Sweden; West Berlin, Germany. Makes periodic visits to all, conducting sesshin and workshops. Holds two 3-month formal training periods annually at Rochester. Has also for 20 years spoken at colleges, universities, growth centres and symposia, etc. Plans to go into semi-retirement in 1987. Books including Three Pillars of Zen; Zen Dawn in the West; Wheel of Death; To Cherish all Life (The Buddhist Case for Vegetarianism); A Pilgrimage to the Buddhist Temples and Caves of China; The Private Encounter with the Roshi: Its Hazards and Rewards, and the Passage of the Flame; Practical Guidance in Death, Dying, Karma & Rebirth.

Kennett Roshi, Jiyu (Peggy Teresa Nancy Kennett) (1924-1996):
British-born Soto Zen master working in the USA. Born England. Educated Trinity College of Music, London, and Durham University. Early Buddhist studies at London Buddhist Vihara and Buddhist Soceity. 1962: ordained into the Rinzai Zen tradition by Seck Kim Seng, Abbot of Cheng Hoon Teng Temple in Malacca, Malaysia; and went on to study Soto Zen in Japan at Sojo-jo under Chisan Koho Zenji; received transmission from Koho Zenji; installed as Abbess of Unpuku-ji (Mie Perfecture); granted Sanzen license. 1969: to San Francisco on lecture tour. 1970: Zen Mission Society founded; moved to Mount Shasta and became Abbess and Spiritual Director at Shasta Abbey; also instructor at University of California Extension in Berkeley since 1972; sat on the faculty of the California Institute of Transpersonal Psychology and lectured at universities worldwide. Also founded numerous Zen temples and meditations groups through USA, Canada and in England (especially Throssel Hole Priory). Shasta Abbey is Headquarter of her reformed Soto Zen Church and Order of Buddhist Contemplatives (OBC). Books including Zen is Eternal Life (1st issue as Selling Water by the River).

Luk, Charles (Upasaka Lu Ku'an Yu; 1898-1978):
Translator and Writer on Ch'an. Born Canton. Studied with Hutuktu (-Tulku) of Sinkang (a Vajrayana teacher of both Kagyu and Gelug lineages) and Master Hsu Yun (quod vide (see reference elsewhere)), who urged him to translate Chinese Buddhist texts. Dedicated the last 20 years of his life (from 1956) to this cause. Lived in exile in Hong Kong, maintaining a world-wide correspondence.1st visited Europe in 1930s; visited London and met Christmas Humphreys in 1935. Publications including Ch'an & Zen Teachings (3 vols); translations of various sutras (Surangama, Vimalakirti, Diamond, Heart); Secrets of Chinese Meditation; Taoist Yoga; The Transmission of the Mind Outside the Teaching and Practical Buddhism.

Maezumi Roshi, Hakuyu Taizen (1931-95):
Founder of Zen Centre of Los Angeles. Born Otawara, Tochigi perfecture, Japan. Age 11: ordained a Zen monk. Received degrees in Oriental literature and philosophy from Komazawa University. Afterwards studied at Soji-ji. 1955: received Dharma transmission from Hakuun Koruda Roshi. Also received inka from Koryu Osaka Roshi and Hakuun Kuroda Roshi, thus also becoming Dharma successor in two major lines of Rinzai Zen. Holds Sanzen Dojo Shike (Training Master's credentials) too. 1956: came to Los Angeles as priest of Zenshuji temple. 1967; founded Zen Centre of Los Angeles (ZCLA). 1976: established Kuroda Institute for Transcultural Studies (now called Kuroda Institute for the Study of Buddhism & Human Values). Also founding influence behind Zen Arts Center, Mt Tremper, New York. Books including On Zen Practice (I and II, both edited with Glassman, B.T.), The Hazy Moon of Enlightenment (with Glassman, B.T.) and The Way of Everyday Life.

Nhat Hanh, Thich
Well known Vietnamese monk and poet, born 1926. Ordination and advance religious training in Vietnam. Coined the term "Engaged Buddhism" in his book Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire. What makes Venerable Thich Nhat Hanh distinctive is his extensive arsenal of methods. He recommends meditation, of course, koan study and breath regulation, but he also puts great stress on Theravada methods (mindfulness and the psychology of the Abhidhamma).

Sasaki, Ruth Fuller (1883-1967)
Pioneer of Zen Buddhism in USA. Early 1930s: to Japan; zazen at Nanzenji (Kyoto) for a few months. 1938: settled New York City; became supporter of Sokeian Sasaki's Buddhist Society of America (later The First Zen Institute of New York, later still of, America). 1994: married Sokei -an Saski (died 1945). 1949: returned to Japan with 3-fold purpose: (1) to find a teacher to take over First Zen Institute; (2) to complete transactions of Rinzairoku and other Zen texts ; (3) to complete her own Zen training. Studied at Daitokuji with Goto Zuigan Roshi. 1956: allowed to build a small zendo and library, Ryosen-an, at Daitoku-ji; this is a branch of First Zen Institute of America; believed that the only authentic way to study Zen was in Japan. 1958: ordained a Zen priest at Daitoku-ji, sponsored by Sesso Oda Roshi. Books including Zen- A Religion; Zen - A Method for Religion Awakening; Zen Dust and The Zen Koan (with Isshu Miura); The Recorded Sayings of Layman P'ang (represent as A Man of Zen, with Iriya Yoshitaka and Dana R Fraser); and Recorded Sayings of Lin- Chi (with Yoshitaka).

Seung Sahn (Soen Sunim - alt. Soen Sa Nim)
Korean Zen Master based in USA. Born 1927, Korea, as Lee Duk An during Japanese occupation. Parents Christian. Joined underground movements. After World War II, studied Western philosophy at Dongguk University; became disenchanted with both politics and scholarship, 1948: became Buddhist monk and embarked upon intensive meditation. At 32 received Dharma Transmission from Zen Master Ko Bong. During Korean War spent 5 years in South Korean Army; afterwards returned to monastic life; became abbot of temple in New Seoul. Then spent 9 years in Japan and Hong Kong, founding temples and teaching. 1972: went to USA; at first worked in a laundry in Providence, Rhode Island; began to gather students from Brown University; Providence Zen Centre developed, now head temple for many sub-centres and affiliated groups both in North America and in Europe (Poland, West Germany, etc.). Books including Only Don't Know. Dropping Ashes on the Buddha and Boe of Space: Zen Poems.

Suzuki, Daisetz Teitara (1870-1966)
'The Man Who Brought Zen to the West' Also wrote many books and articles about Shin Buddhism. Born Kanazawa, Japan. After school, taught English. 1891:entered Tokyo Semmon Gakko (Waseda University.). 1891: began Zen training under Imagita Kosen Roshi and Soyen Shaku at Engaku-ji (Kamakura). 1897: to USA (LaSalle, III.) to work for Open Court Publishing Co. 1909: returned to Japan; became lecturer at Peers' School and at Tokyo Imperial University. 1911: married Beatrice Erskine Lane. 1912: visited England at invitation of Swedenborg Society. 1921: began publication of The Eastern Buddhist; also moved to Kyoto to Chair of Buddhist Philosophy at Otani University. 1936: attended World Congress of Faiths in London and lectured on Zen and Japanese culture at various British and American universities. 1946: founded Matsugaoka Bunko ('Pine Hill Library') in Kamakura, near. Engaku-ji; began publication of The Cultural East.1947: lectured on Buddhism to Emperor of Japan. 1950-58: lectured and toured extensively in the West, notably in USA; held posts at Columbia University. Books including Essays in Zen Buddhisms (3 series), Studies in the Lankavatara Sutra, Introduction to Zen Buddhism, Manual of Zen Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, The Essence of Buddhism, The Zen Doctrine of No-Mind, Living by Zen, A Miscellany on the Shin Teaching of Buddhism, Studies in Zen, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist, Zen & Japanese Buddhism, Zen and Japanese Culture, Zen Buddhism & Psychoanalysis, The Field of Zen, Shin Buddhism, What Is Zen? Sengai the Zen Master and Collected Writings on Shin Buddhism. Translations include The Lankavatara Sutra, The Awakening of Faith (Asvaghaosha), Sermons of a Buddhist Abbot (Soyen Shaku), The Life of Shinran Shomin and The Kyogyoshinsho. Biography by A. Irwin Switzer 111. Memior: Suzuki Remembered, edited. Masao Abe.

Suzuki Roshi, Shunryu (1904-71)
Eminent teacher of Soto Zen in USA: founder of San Francisco Zen Center. Born Japan; father a Zen Master; at early age began Zen training under Gyokujun Soon-daiosho, a Soto Master, and other teachers. Recognized as a Zen Master c 30; became responsible for many temples and a monastery. During World War II led a pacifist group. 1959: to USA intending only short visit but settled in San Francisco area, where a group formed. 1962: San Francisco Zen Centre formally inaugurated; this grew to occupy a number of Californian locations, including Zen Mountain Center at Tassajara Springs (1st Zen monastery in USA with facilities for long-term practice, established 1967). 1971: installed Richard Baker as Dharma Heir. Author of the classic Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind.

• Note on Titles, etc:

Daiosho: (Jap.) lit. 'great priest'.
Dharma Heir: disciple to whom a Master has given Dharma Transmission.
Dharma Transmission: the transmission of Truth or the One Mind from master to disciple heart to heart (i.e. beyond words and concepts).
Dojo: (Jap.) training hall.
Inka: (Jap.) lit.'seal' signifies that the Master has formally certified the disciple's understanding.
Kensho: (Jap.) first glimpse of one's true nature.
Osho: (Jap.) priest.
Roshi; (Jap.) lit. 'old teacher'; signifies a Zen Master.
Sesshin: (Jap.) intensive retreat.
Sensei: (Jap.) teacher.
Sunim: (Korean) formal title for Korean monks and nuns.
Transmission: see Dharma Transmission.
Zendo: (Jap.) Zen training hall.